initial THREADS
When I finally picked the topic of Egungun masquerades for this research scrapbook, I had little idea of where to begin. In knew that “egungun” was some sort of religious performance done by a group of people called the “Yoruba.” I did not know where the Yoruba people lived, what they believed, what their history was. I was starting at the ground level. I began, then, buy looking at a few historical accounts of the Yoruba. Most of these books, I discovered, were by Nigerian-born scholars. I quickly learned that the Yoruba are a diverse people-group who live in the modern day states of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. Not only is the term “Yoruba” applied to a people group, a culture, and a geographic area (known as “yorubaland”) it is also used to describe a whole language with its own complex linguistic history. The Yoruba people have an extensive and rich civilization whose history is marked by periods of advanced urbanism, several large empires (including the Oyo Empire, 1600-1830), Western colonization, a world-wide diaspora, and eventual independence from colonial rule (H. Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 13). Furthermore, the Yoruba culture has produced some of Africa’s most vibrant, long-lasting, and influential artistic traditions, especially in the field of sculpture and other plastic arts. The Yoruba have complex and distinct religious beliefs characterized by an extensive pantheon of god, deities, and ancestral spirits. This religion expresses itself in an overarching cosmology and an understanding of the afterlife that is more fluid compared to western notions.
On this page you will find a review of the contextual information I collected in the early stages of my research. This includes information about Yoruba cosmology, the Yoruba pantheon of gods and deities, and general information about Yoruba aesthetics.
On this page you will find a review of the contextual information I collected in the early stages of my research. This includes information about Yoruba cosmology, the Yoruba pantheon of gods and deities, and general information about Yoruba aesthetics.
the yoruba cosmos
"The Yoruba conceive of the cosmos as consisting of two distinct yet inseparable realms--aye (the visible, tangible world of the living) and orun (the invisible, spiritual realm of the ancestors, gods, and spirits)" (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 14). The cosmos is often visualized as a sphere horizontally dissected with the top half depicting orun and the bottom half depicting aye. The shape and inscription of Ifa divination trays reflect this visualization of Yoruba cosmology. Drewal writes that this image “has temporal implications since the Yoruba conceive of the past as accessible and essential as a model for the present. They believe that persons live, depart, and are reborn and that every individual comes from either the gods or one's ancestors on the mother’s of the father’s side” (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 14). This element of Yoruba cosmology finds its partial fulfilment in much of the Egungun masquerade. Olajubu and Ojo write “The Yoruba do not revere oku, the dead in their physical state; but ara orun, heavenly beings, the disembodied spirits of the dead” (Olajubu and Ojo 253). The maskers dance to honor the ara orun who have departed from the world of the living (aye) and who now reside in the otherworld (orun). The basis of the ritual, then, is this belief that the border between these two worlds is fluid.
In his essay Dimensions of Theatricality in Africa, Joachim Fiebach outlines African conceptions of the relationship between orun and aye, which is “a noncompartmentalizing conception that recognizes no rigid boundaries between different classes of phenomena, between the visible and the invisible, between earthly practices and supernatural forces” (33). Justine M. Cordwell also illuminates this idea when she writes, "The world view of the Yoruba is one that constantly considers the continuity of life and death and other worlds. Life is a continuum of steady reincarnation" (56). It is this “noncompartmentalization," this view of life and death as continuous, that is the base of both Yoruba cosmology and styles of ritual spirit possession like the Egungun. In this vein, Fiebach continues: “Taking the (imagined) communication with supernatural forces (worlds) as constituents of real life requires visualization (presentation, representation) of the invisible. Intercourse with them must be rendered as a practice, or in other words, it must be performed…cultural performance …appears to be essential for dealing with public matters in general and thus for constructing social realities” (33-34, emphasis mine). According to Fiebach, then, Egungun masquerades not only use Yoruba cosmology as their base ideology, but help to construct this ideology through the reality of their actual performance. Egungun performance then, is both ontological and epistemological – it is a mode of reality making just as it is a mode of knowledge making.
In his essay Dimensions of Theatricality in Africa, Joachim Fiebach outlines African conceptions of the relationship between orun and aye, which is “a noncompartmentalizing conception that recognizes no rigid boundaries between different classes of phenomena, between the visible and the invisible, between earthly practices and supernatural forces” (33). Justine M. Cordwell also illuminates this idea when she writes, "The world view of the Yoruba is one that constantly considers the continuity of life and death and other worlds. Life is a continuum of steady reincarnation" (56). It is this “noncompartmentalization," this view of life and death as continuous, that is the base of both Yoruba cosmology and styles of ritual spirit possession like the Egungun. In this vein, Fiebach continues: “Taking the (imagined) communication with supernatural forces (worlds) as constituents of real life requires visualization (presentation, representation) of the invisible. Intercourse with them must be rendered as a practice, or in other words, it must be performed…cultural performance …appears to be essential for dealing with public matters in general and thus for constructing social realities” (33-34, emphasis mine). According to Fiebach, then, Egungun masquerades not only use Yoruba cosmology as their base ideology, but help to construct this ideology through the reality of their actual performance. Egungun performance then, is both ontological and epistemological – it is a mode of reality making just as it is a mode of knowledge making.
Orun: the otherworldOlodumare: is the creator of existence. Usually not assigned a sexual identity, the god is “generally distant, removed from the affairs of both divine and worldly beings” (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 14). Olodumare is the source of ase, the life force possessed by everything that exists.
The otherworld is inhabited by orisa (gods), ara orun (ancestors) and various other spirits. Orisa are divided into two categories: orisas funfun (cool, temperate gods) and orisa gbigbona (hot, tempermental gods). The former group are generally “gentle, soothing, calm and reflective” while the later are generally “harsh demanding, aggressive, and quick-tempered” (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 14-15). These gods are not categorized in terms of “good” and “evil,” but rather have positive and negative values associated with their life forces (ase) “as expressed by their natures or personalities (iwa)” (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 15). “While all the gods periodically journey to the world [through their mediums] two sacred powers Ifa and Esu/Elegba, stand at the threshold between the realms of orun and aye, assisting in communication between the divine and human realms.” Ifa divination practice “offers humans the possibility of knowing the forces at work in specific situation in their lives and of influencing the course of events through prayer and sacrifice” (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 15). Esu/Elegba is the divine messenger/activator. He is “the agent of effective action, who also reminds one of the unpredictable nature of human experience" (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 15) He is the guardian of the ritual process, and as such plays an important role in Egungun masquerades. Perhaps most important to the Egungun masquerade however, are the acestors who also inhabit the otherworld. Called ara orun, the anscestors are “departed but not deceased” (Drewal Pemberton 1989: 15) and can visit their relatives in a variety of ways including in the dance and performance of an Egungun masker. |
aye: the world of the livingAye is the "visible, tangible realm of the living, including those invisible otherworldly forces that visit frequently and strongly influence human affairs" (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 15). The concept of aye cannot be fully accounted for without an understanding of its interrelatedness to orun. Indeed, in Yoruba cosmology the otherworld is omnipresent in the world of the living. Drewal quotes a common Yoruba saying: "The world [life] is a journey, the otherworld [afterlife] is home" (15). This understanding of the life as a journey from one sphere to the next is essential to Egungun masquerade. The division between these two worlds is seen as fluid, and the maskers of Egungun performance are seen as vessels who inhabit the slippery plane between aye and orun.
Drewal goes on to discuss the general goals and aspirations of people living in the world: "long life, peace, prosperity, progeny, and good reputation. Ideally, these can be achieved through the constant search for ogbon (wisdom), imo (knowledge), and Oye (understanding). |
yoruba aesthetics
Of course, attempting to establish one, unified understanding of Yoruba aesthetics is an impossible task and one that should be looked on with skepticism. What follows here is a quick listing of some of the main "ideals" expressed through the Yoruba aesthetic tradition. These are culled from my research, and offer a small glimpse into a much larger world. Furthermore, they have been selected for their connection to Yoruba performance styles in general, and Egungun masquerades in particular.
The aesthetics of Yoruba art, both performative and plastic, find their basis in the ase or individual life force given to all existing things by the divined creator Olodumare. Ase is characterized as the power to make things happen, to make things change. Margaret Drewal draws on this concept in her discussion of the improvisational agency possessed by Yoruba ritual practitioners (discussed later in the scrapbook). Ase can also be translated as “power, authority, command.” Individuals who have come to harness this life force are referred to as alaase (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16). Any person is considered able to achieve this superior state and as such, within the Yoruba cosmos, “each person possesses a unique blend of performantive power and knowledge,” a fact that shapes Egungun performance in major ways (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16). Much of Yoruba social action is characterized by eso (caution), ifarabale (composure), and owo (respect) (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16).
The concept of ase is important in understanding one the main tenants of Yoruba aesthetics: iwa l’ewe. Omofolabo S. Ajayi translates the phrase as “presence is beauty,” (29) while Henry Drewal suggests a more apt version would be “character is beauty” (42). Translation of the world iwa, then, is central to our understanding of this guiding principle of Yoruba aesthetics. Ajayi, who focuses her studies on the semiotics of the dancing Yoruba body, translates iwa as presence, as a way of holding one’s self that correctly observes Yoruba ethical norms. These ethical norms are tied to a sense of symmetrical balance between the internal and the external. An individual who is balanced has ewa, is beautiful. Ajayi writes, “The ideal person is expected to conform reasonably…to the ethics of body behavior in the society. However, what is expected is not rigid conformity; the society also expects and appreciates occasional lapses and personal idiosyncrasies” (29). This acceptance of deviation and improvisation plays a key role in the play of difference in Egungun masquerades.
Drewal translates iwa as “character,” and more specifically as a force of the ase that describes a thing’s “eternal constancy” (Pemberton and Drewal 1989: 42). Thus, a work of art that captures a thing’s “eternal constancy,” its iwa, is considered beautiful. It is interesting to note here that Drewal, and art historian, translates iwa in a way that applies well to three dimensional artifacts, while Ajayi, a dance theoretician, defines the word in terms of the body moving in space. Both translations get at the same idea, however – that whatever has equilibrium between the halves of the ase is beautiful.
The Yoruba aesthetic understanding of the self is also important to a study of the Egungun. The self is conceived as having an exterior (ode) and an interior (inu). The inner aspect of a person should rule their visible, physical appearance. As Henry Drewal writes, though the ode may mask the inu it can also reveal it in telling ways (16). Ajayi mentions the two parts of the Yoruba conception of the self, noting that in terms of body aesthetic internal beauty must be balanced with external beauty. Indeed, all of life, all of one’s self, should be the product of a symmetrical balance beween the negative and positive forces of the world. As sense of balance, then, is essential to the Yoruba aesthetic, and plays an important role in the performance of Egungun masquerades
Summarizing Yoruba aesthetics, Drewal writes that Yoruba artists (and this includes Egungun performers and spectators) value, “reasoned openness and creativity—a mental outlook that carefully evaluates creative production in the past in order to lead to new, appropriate, and efficacious creations in the future” (42). This is the exact attitude that a performer of the Egungun must have: a knowledge of the past, an openness to the present, and a desire to effect the future. Ajayi continues this idea when she writes, “While recognized as an independent art form, many dances are created either as part of, or to emphasize and illustrate important aspects of Yoruba social structure and events…The dance was not segregated from other aspects of life, rather, it was closely interwoven with significant aspects of the culture, informing, enriching, and perpetuating it” (2). Dance is a way for the community to affirm traditional foundational values from the past, reassess current modes and constructs, and imagine new aesthetic and moral codes for the future that build upon those of the past.
Finally, Ajayi discusses the aesthetics of the dancing body in Yoruba culture, which sheds some light on the spirit possession experienced by the Egungun performer. Of Yoruba aesthetics, she writes, “the body is a site of culture, beauty, art, expression, and spirituality” (3). This is especially true, I would argue, of Egungun masked performance, since the maskers bodies, concealed beneath layers of symbolic costume, are effaced, yet in their effacement become sites of intense spiritual and cultural identity contestation and formation. In the dance the performer’s earthly body becomes possessed by a heavenly body, and this act of otherworldly penetration transforms the performer into a charged vessel. Through their performance the masker makes manifest on his effaced body that which is normally unseen. Interestingly, through veiling his body, the performer conversely unveils the otherworld, a world of disembodiment. Omofolabo points out, however, that dance is not only used to achieve spirit possession, and is in fact a often employed social tool that does the practical work of defining individuals in terms of their membership in earthly society: “…to the Yoruba, dance is one of the attributes that defines a person and which integrates one fully as a member of society” (4). The primacy of the body, then, is important not only in Egungun masquerade but in larger Yoruba aesthetic codes and practices.
The aesthetics of Yoruba art, both performative and plastic, find their basis in the ase or individual life force given to all existing things by the divined creator Olodumare. Ase is characterized as the power to make things happen, to make things change. Margaret Drewal draws on this concept in her discussion of the improvisational agency possessed by Yoruba ritual practitioners (discussed later in the scrapbook). Ase can also be translated as “power, authority, command.” Individuals who have come to harness this life force are referred to as alaase (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16). Any person is considered able to achieve this superior state and as such, within the Yoruba cosmos, “each person possesses a unique blend of performantive power and knowledge,” a fact that shapes Egungun performance in major ways (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16). Much of Yoruba social action is characterized by eso (caution), ifarabale (composure), and owo (respect) (Drewal and Pemberton 1989: 16).
The concept of ase is important in understanding one the main tenants of Yoruba aesthetics: iwa l’ewe. Omofolabo S. Ajayi translates the phrase as “presence is beauty,” (29) while Henry Drewal suggests a more apt version would be “character is beauty” (42). Translation of the world iwa, then, is central to our understanding of this guiding principle of Yoruba aesthetics. Ajayi, who focuses her studies on the semiotics of the dancing Yoruba body, translates iwa as presence, as a way of holding one’s self that correctly observes Yoruba ethical norms. These ethical norms are tied to a sense of symmetrical balance between the internal and the external. An individual who is balanced has ewa, is beautiful. Ajayi writes, “The ideal person is expected to conform reasonably…to the ethics of body behavior in the society. However, what is expected is not rigid conformity; the society also expects and appreciates occasional lapses and personal idiosyncrasies” (29). This acceptance of deviation and improvisation plays a key role in the play of difference in Egungun masquerades.
Drewal translates iwa as “character,” and more specifically as a force of the ase that describes a thing’s “eternal constancy” (Pemberton and Drewal 1989: 42). Thus, a work of art that captures a thing’s “eternal constancy,” its iwa, is considered beautiful. It is interesting to note here that Drewal, and art historian, translates iwa in a way that applies well to three dimensional artifacts, while Ajayi, a dance theoretician, defines the word in terms of the body moving in space. Both translations get at the same idea, however – that whatever has equilibrium between the halves of the ase is beautiful.
The Yoruba aesthetic understanding of the self is also important to a study of the Egungun. The self is conceived as having an exterior (ode) and an interior (inu). The inner aspect of a person should rule their visible, physical appearance. As Henry Drewal writes, though the ode may mask the inu it can also reveal it in telling ways (16). Ajayi mentions the two parts of the Yoruba conception of the self, noting that in terms of body aesthetic internal beauty must be balanced with external beauty. Indeed, all of life, all of one’s self, should be the product of a symmetrical balance beween the negative and positive forces of the world. As sense of balance, then, is essential to the Yoruba aesthetic, and plays an important role in the performance of Egungun masquerades
Summarizing Yoruba aesthetics, Drewal writes that Yoruba artists (and this includes Egungun performers and spectators) value, “reasoned openness and creativity—a mental outlook that carefully evaluates creative production in the past in order to lead to new, appropriate, and efficacious creations in the future” (42). This is the exact attitude that a performer of the Egungun must have: a knowledge of the past, an openness to the present, and a desire to effect the future. Ajayi continues this idea when she writes, “While recognized as an independent art form, many dances are created either as part of, or to emphasize and illustrate important aspects of Yoruba social structure and events…The dance was not segregated from other aspects of life, rather, it was closely interwoven with significant aspects of the culture, informing, enriching, and perpetuating it” (2). Dance is a way for the community to affirm traditional foundational values from the past, reassess current modes and constructs, and imagine new aesthetic and moral codes for the future that build upon those of the past.
Finally, Ajayi discusses the aesthetics of the dancing body in Yoruba culture, which sheds some light on the spirit possession experienced by the Egungun performer. Of Yoruba aesthetics, she writes, “the body is a site of culture, beauty, art, expression, and spirituality” (3). This is especially true, I would argue, of Egungun masked performance, since the maskers bodies, concealed beneath layers of symbolic costume, are effaced, yet in their effacement become sites of intense spiritual and cultural identity contestation and formation. In the dance the performer’s earthly body becomes possessed by a heavenly body, and this act of otherworldly penetration transforms the performer into a charged vessel. Through their performance the masker makes manifest on his effaced body that which is normally unseen. Interestingly, through veiling his body, the performer conversely unveils the otherworld, a world of disembodiment. Omofolabo points out, however, that dance is not only used to achieve spirit possession, and is in fact a often employed social tool that does the practical work of defining individuals in terms of their membership in earthly society: “…to the Yoruba, dance is one of the attributes that defines a person and which integrates one fully as a member of society” (4). The primacy of the body, then, is important not only in Egungun masquerade but in larger Yoruba aesthetic codes and practices.
yoruba land
picture Sources
Header image: "Egungun Maskers Garment" (http://www.imamuseum.org)
Figure 1: Scanned image from Drewal, Henry J, John Pemberton, Rowland Abiodun, and Allen Wardwell. Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams, 1989. Print.Figure 2: http://adwlab-team5.wikispaces.com/Map+of+Yorubaland
Figure 1: Scanned image from Drewal, Henry J, John Pemberton, Rowland Abiodun, and Allen Wardwell. Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams, 1989. Print.Figure 2: http://adwlab-team5.wikispaces.com/Map+of+Yorubaland